Effects of Cultural Diversity on the Modern Classroom Essay Example

Effects of Cultural Diversity on the Modern Classroom Essay Running Header: CULTURAL DIVERSITY Effects of Cultural Diversity on the Modern Classroom Abstract This paper examines the effects that increasing diversity in the American classroom has had on the teaching profession. With the massive changes in cultural and linguistic minority levels within the classroom, the field of education as a whole has been forced to evolve. This adaptation is necessary for the American education system to maintain the levels of success that it has achieved in years past. Included within this work are personal experiences highlighting my own sensitivity to the increasingly diverse classroom, as well as explicit connections to education experts. We will write a custom essay sample on Effects of Cultural Diversity on the Modern Classroom specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Effects of Cultural Diversity on the Modern Classroom specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Effects of Cultural Diversity on the Modern Classroom specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The last few decades have seen a notable change to the face of education. No longer are classes predominantly comprised of the cultural or ethnic majority. Classes have grown to reflect the cultural diversity that is prevalent throughout society in the United States. Due to the great change in the face of the classroom today, schools are adapting their instructional strategies to be considerate and respectful of the massive amounts of culture within the classroom. This newly emerging cultural diversity is what is shaping the field of education today. Unlike classrooms throughout history, teachers must now consider cognition, as it is influenced by culture, to determine how to best teach their students. Culture in the classroom does not create nor allow a uniform teaching style anymore. Traditional means of teaching, for all intents and purposes, have gone stale. The drastic increases to the cultural and ethnic diversity in the classroom have paved the way for a new style of instruction. Within the field of educational psychology there are many people working diligently to reveal more about student learning with respect and acknowledgement of each individual studentâ„ ¢s culture. This explosion of discovery, on the part of the psychologists, has revealed that learning and cognition, although varying from person to person, are shaped on a higher level by each individualâ„ ¢s culture (Greenfield Cocking, 1994, p.4). Gardenerâ„ ¢s theory of Multiple Intelligences established precedence for this, as it states that not every person learns in the same fashion. Some students may excel in a lecture-style classroom while other students are more inclined to learn in a hands-on based setting (Eby, Herrel, Jordan, 1994, p.209). This proves the distinct possibility that each student in a classroom will process material differently and, therefore, teachers must work to diversify their instructional approaches to meet the individual needs of the students. In recent years, educational psychologists such as Ruby Takanishi and John Ogbu have acknowledged that this phenomenon of students learning material differently extends beyond the basic capacity for cognition. In addition to needing variation of instruction, students also process information differently. They have concluded that the ability to process information also stems from a studentâ„ ¢s cultural influences. A great example of the variation of cognition dependent on culture comes from Greenfield and Cockingâ„ ¢s Cross-Cultural Roots of Minority Child Development. Within this collection of analyses of education, Jacqueline Jamin utilized the comparison of Inuit children of Canada to Baoule children of the Ivory Coast. In her comparison, Jamin concluded that certain concepts and the acquisition of cognitive skills are stronger in some cultures rather than others (Greenfield Cocking, 1994, p.147). From this analysis, she determined that Inuit children have a greater understanding of the concept of space whereas Baoule children comprehend the concept of quantity on a deeper level. Jamin noted in her summation of this comparison that these differences in cognition are derived from certain aspects of daily life that are highly valued among these cultures (Greenfield Cocking, 1994, p.147). It is facts such as this that teachers must consider when planning and instructing in the dive rse classroom of today. The influence of culture on cognition extends beyond conceptual knowledge of course material. Furthermore, it also extends beyond the two-culture model that compares the Baoule and Inuit children. As Takanishi wrote in her article pertaining to children of Japanese descent, the influence of culture extends far beyond excelling in specific topics or areas. Takanishi described the hardships that students of various Asian heritages face within the classroom. The situation that is illustrated presents the cultural influence pertaining to the respecting of authority figures and elders. In this model, students are often viewed as timid, shy, and reluctant to ask questions (Greenfield Cocking, 1994, p.352). Considering this, a teacher will experience very little success when instructing students of some Asian cultures if they engage them using the Socratic method or a similar approach (Johnson, Musial, Hall, Gollnick, Dupuis, 2008, p.304). In order to experience success in the class room, teachers must be considerate and respectful of different cultures and how it applies to their instruction because a studentâ„ ¢s culture is an engrained aspect of their personality. These two articles from Greenfield and Cockingâ„ ¢s text reveal quite a bit about what profound influence culture possesses over learning. Educational psychologists have revealed much about the scope of influence that culture has over an individualâ„ ¢s learning process. Teaching to a diverse classroom should be given as much respect as teaching to students of varying skills and abilities. Teachers must find a way to reach every student regardless of their skill level or background and experiences. Culture does not hinder a childâ„ ¢s educational performance, it creates a unique opportunity for teachers to personalize their education further to assist all students in their adventures in learning (Slavin, 2009, p.92). The above examples help to illustrate the additional uniqueness that culture adds to each student. Within the classroom there are students who will learn differently, behave differently, and experience success in different subjects. Educators have begun to give consideration to the varying degrees of learning and variation of skills and abilities in recent years. Instructional trends throughout the field of education, such as bilingual education, accommodation, modification, active learning, discovery learning, and many other approaches to teaching, have developed from the recognition of diversity within the classroom. Students who would have traditionally struggled in the former sink or swim types of immersion are finally receiving the necessary attention to assist them in learning (Ovando, Combs, Collier, 2006, p.41). Teachers are becoming better trained for the increased diversity within the classroom. These teachers are the ones who work hard to develop the educational app roaches responsible for the successes in educating culturally, ethnically, and linguistically diverse classrooms. Throughout the Greenfield and Cocking text, the need for sensitivity towards the culture of students is a recurring theme. A simple awareness to a studentâ„ ¢s culture is not enough for a teacher to have when teaching a diverse class. Sensitivity goes beyond awareness, as it is an acknowledgement of the various cultures that may exist and also an accommodation for any cultural needs that may be present. An educator who does not possess the necessary sensitivity to a studentâ„ ¢s cultural needs might not take the initiative, or not know to take the initiative, to meet the varying needs of their students. In both instances of neglect and ignorance the needs of the student, as related to, and a result from, their cultural upbringing, go unmet. Sensitivity to culture can also be interpreted as being knowledgeable and respectful of a studentâ„ ¢s culture to the point where it serves as a reference point for accommodation within the classroom. The action of accommodation should function similar to the way accommodation and modification does for students with disabilities. The theory behind accommodation and modification is basic in scope and thus can, and should, be applied in the instance of diversity. General accommodations already in widespread use include the production of handouts in majority and minority languages, advanced notice of assignments, assistive learning devices, course modifications and many others (Greenfield Cocking, 1994, p.32). With accommodation strategies such as these already employed, it is an easy and logical step to apply them beyond their original, intended scope, and apply them with regard to cultural needs of students. If this is done, the students will receive the added and necessary attention to help increase the quality of learning they are receiving. In achieving this, educators are making it easier for students to process the information presented in the classroom. The sensitivity toward culture is derived from an understanding and knowledge of the various cultures that are represented within the classroom. Although there may be a wide range of cultures within the classroom, teachers should be conscious of the audience that they are instructing (Ovando et al., 2006, p.32). Being aware of your studentsâ„ ¢ cultures will help the teacher maximize the probability of achieving success in the classroom. A teacher with a true understanding of the cultures of his students will be better equipped to teach to the whole, not to the particular. Understanding culture can reveal much about studentâ„ ¢s wants and needs. Furthermore, the teacher will be able to understand their studentsâ„ ¢ mannerisms and body language, a skill that will help prevent any misconceptions of bad behavior or rudeness. This understanding does not just apply to lesson design and instruction, but rather it paves the road for appropriate and constructive student/teach er, parent/teacher, and student/parent/teacher interactions. From 1994 to 1996 the number of linguistic minority students skyrocketed from three million to nearly ten million students (Nieto, 2000). The increased volume of minority language students has had great effects on the education system in the United States. This growth of minority language students has greatly increased the demand for teachers to have an improved awareness of the needs of all of their students. Teachers are not the only aspect of the American education system that has needed to become more modernized to suit the diverse culture of today. The prevalence and high amounts of diversity in the classroom has resulted in a need for reform of instructional settings, classroom compositions and the focus of the school as well. Change is not something that the teachers are entirely responsible for, as school districts and the field of education as a whole must develop and adapt into a more responsive and adaptable institution. The act of refining the teaching profession to become compassionate and accommodating to cultural and linguistic diversity has not been developing on its own. Alongside this development, the fundamentals and teaching strategies used within the classroom have also experienced great changes. As previously mentioned, there is a transition away from traditional instructional methods. The lesson planning and execution processes are continually being refined in a manner that heavily suggests incorporation of cultural learning. Although lessons are still encouraged to maintain the traditional style of review, introduction, presentation, seatwork, summary, and conclusion, the inner-workings of each aspect of the lesson has experienced revision. Lecturing, as a tool for presenting subject matter, has undergone many changes to assist students of various culture and language differences in understanding course content. With the incorporation of modern technology, either via visual presentation and/or translated course materials, achieving a bilingual setting has become much easier to attain. Furthermore, constructivist-learning theory has begun to influence educational approaches and strategies to the point that the presentation and seatwork sections are intertwined (Johnson et al., 2008, p.331). Discovery learning calls for students to explore the course materials and learn in a manner that best suits their needs (Eby et al., 2006, p.218). This is entirely conducive to cultural sensitivity and consideration within the classroom as teachers facilitate and supervise learning rather than control it. The constructivist approach is defined as a situation where students learn best through meaningful, first hand experiences (J ohnson et al., 2008, p.331). In this model, in compliance with constructivist theory, teachers give the students the necessary tools for them to learn the material in a fashion that best suits their needs. The implementation of constructivist theory, namely through discovery learning, has become much more commonplace in the school systems today. Before taking this class on Cognition, Culture and Language I was unaware of the profound effect that culture can have on student learning. Though I had learned the importance of understanding the culture of the students to establish connecting points within the curriculum, I did not possess any further reason to have a personal cultural understanding with students. It is now evident to me that understanding the cultures of students will achieve more than establishing connecting points. Teachers with the understanding of the cultures of their students are better equipped to assist their students in the learning process. Moreover, teachers who understand the cultures and cultural values of their students are more inclined to be accepting of their students and not violate any cultural norms that the parents might have instilled in their children. Also, when a teacher has a grasp of the cultures of their students, it is unlikely that they will misinterpret behaviors that are spec ific to various cultures as being insubordinate, rude, or timid (Greenfield Cocking, 1994, p.352). Rather than assume a student is exhibiting negative character traits, a teacher with cultural understanding would be more inclined to research alternate methods of instruction that move away from situations where students exhibit these behaviors. With respect to cultural sensitivity, I have learned many things about the implications of diversity within the classroom. Cultural sensitivity, or the sincere acknowledgement of the diversity within the class, is essential for teachers to excel in the classroom. Possessing sensitivity to culture is on a greater level than a simple awareness and understanding. When a teacher has a combination of awareness, sensitivity, and understanding, they will know how to respond situationally and appropriately. Sensitivity also has beneficial effects when establishing relationships that extend beyond the classroom. A teacher who is culturally sensitive will interact with students and their families. When they do this, they will be conscious and respectful of culture and will conduct themselves with tact and dignity. In addition, when teachers employ ideas that are centered on accommodation and lesson modification, they will ensure success among all students, not simply the minority or the majority. Culture exists, and has influence on, so many levels of our everyday lives. The effect that culture has on a person is uncontrollable. It is a continual pattern that goes from parent to child and, although it may be changed overtime, still possesses the same common origin. As time progresses, specific groups may develop characteristics different from their original, inherited culture but common traits may remain the same. Regardless of the changes that may occur over time, people are still shaped and developed in accordance with their culture. The effects that culture has on a personâ„ ¢s comprehension and learning have become much more evident as our classrooms become increasingly diverse. Now, to help students learn subject material in a manner that is best receptive to their culture, teachers must develop awareness to these cultures. For the American education system to experience continued success, teachers must work to improve the quality of education it is delivering. Throughout the years there have been continual modifications and evolutions to instructional approaches in order to demonstrate the success that has been occurring in the field of teaching. Now, as the education system faces the challenge of an increasing diverse population, teachers must work to develop educational strategies that best appeal to the whole of their classes. Older, traditional approaches have grown stale and more ineffective as diversity in the classroom continues to rise. Therefore, to experience continued success within the classroom, teachers must once again change their approach. It is the teachers who go through comprehensive preparatory programs that are more receptive and responsive to the needs of the students. These programs teach future educators how to experience success with unique instructional approaches. Various movements within the field of education, such as Constructivism, Bilingual Education, and Discovery Learning, are at the forefront of accommodating classrooms for students of diverse cultural needs. These instructional strategies cannot achieve true success on their own though, as it takes the creative work of open, informed, and compassionate teachers to continue to develop teaching strategies for the benefit of all students. It should be the goal of all future teachers to develop into the culturally sensitive educators that are needed for continued and increased success in the classroom. I feel that, through the requirements that I am working to fulfill at National University, I am being adequately prepared to educate students in the increasingly diverse classroom of today. My own personal experiences, coupled with the facilitated learning activities, are increasing my awareness of studentsâ„ ¢ needs and cultures, thus providing me the adequate tools to be a successful teacher of the future products of the American education system. References: Eby, J., Herrell, A., Jordan, M. (2006). Teaching in K-12 schools: A reflective action approach (4th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Ltd. Greenfield, P. M., Cocking, R. R. (1994). Cross-cultural roots of minority child development. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Johnson, J. A., Musial, D., Hall, G., Gollnick, D., Dupuis, V. (2008). Foundations of american education: Perspectives on education in a changing world (14th Ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education Inc. Nieto, S. (2000). Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of multicultural education. New York: Longman. Ovando, C. J., Combs, M. C., Collier, V. P. (2006). Bilingual and ESL classrooms (4th Ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Slavin, R.E. (2009). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (9th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc.

Asthma Control and Treatment in Racial and Ethnic Minorities Essay Example

Asthma Control and Treatment in Racial and Ethnic Minorities Essay Example Asthma Control and Treatment in Racial and Ethnic Minorities Paper Asthma Control and Treatment in Racial and Ethnic Minorities Paper Abstract Asthma is the most common chronic diseases in the world. Economic and racial/minority disparities in the prevalence and extreme of asthma are researched well, with people belonging to low socio-economic status and racial/minority are more prone to have this chronic disease. It has been noticed that even after trying to control this disease, minorities and people from low socio-economic status are more likely to be hospitalized and yet still not treated fully. There is constant recurring of the same patients coming in for treatment of asthma. This tendency is particularly observed in the urban areas, where racial and ethnic minority who are normally economically disadvantaged people are exposed to asthma-related factors such as poor housing conditions, environmental tobacco smoke, crowding, air pollution, and other allergens. Additional research into these pathways is critical for the design of interventions to reduce the income and racial/ethnic discrepancies in the prevalence and ef fect of asthma as a leading cause of childhood morbidity. This paper discusses the prevalence, morbidity, mortality, factors contributing to a higher prevalence of asthma in racial and ethnic minorities. In the end the disparities in the asthma treatment in minorities is discussed. Asthma Control and Treatment in Racial and Ethnic Minorities Introduction Although asthma cannot be cured, effective treatments have been available for many years. Practice nurses can help to ensure these treatments are used effectively Asthma is defined as a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways that presents as diffuse airways obstruction and is reversible either spontaneously or with treatment. Prevalence, Morbidity, Mortality of Asthma In Racial And Ethnic Minorities Asthma is the most common chronic disease especially in children, and thus prevailing in approximately 4.8 million children in the United States. Asthma is one of the major reasons for hospitalization. Different researches have found out that there is comparatively greater prevalence of asthma in people who belong to urban, racial and ethnic minorities, and low-socioeconomic backgrounds. Prevalence rates of asthma belonging to these backgrounds are found to be 10 percent to 20 percent while the prevalence for US children is 6 percent. These outcomes show that there is increased difference in the prevalence of asthma by racial/ethnic group: in Hispanics, Puerto Ricans have the highest asthma prevalence rate (19.6%), which is three times the prevalence for Mexicans (6.1%). Other racial/ethnic minorities include non-Hispanic Blacks whose prevalence of asthma is (13.8%) and non-Hispanic Whites (11.1%). (Homa, Mannino, Lara, 2000) In the US in 2000, asthma’s morbidity was 474,000 a sthma hospitalizations and 11.9 million medical visits for the disease. Among the diverse U.S. Hispanic population, Puerto Ricans have the greatest annual asthma mortality (40.9 per million) followed by Cuban Americans (15.8 per million) and Mexican Americans (9.2 per million). In comparison, non-Hispanic whites had an annual asthma mortality of 14.7 per million, and non-Hispanic blacks had a rate of 38.1 per million. (Carr, Zeitel, Weiss, 2002) In the US today, patterns of childhood asthma prevalence vary greatly according to socioeconomic status and racial/ethnic background. The highest prevalence and morbidity have occurred among Black children, particularly children of low socioeconomic status residing in large urban areas. It is argued that these racial/ethnic and economic asthma patterns are largely accounted for by social and environmental characteristics). Not often addressed are differences in asthma prevalence within low-income, urban, minority racial/ethnic groups. (Gent, Holford, Leaderer 1996) In particular, epidemiological studies of childhood asthma prevalence have found significant differences among Hispanic subgroups, with Puerto Ricans having the highest rates and Mexican Americans the lowest rates. In the United States, asthma prevalence, hospitalization, and mortality are higher for Black/African American   (racial/ethnic minority) compared to White Caucasian (majority) children and adults. In a Southfield, Michigan, cross-sectional study of childhood asthma in an integrated middle class population, the lifetime prevalence of asthma was twice as high for racial/ethnic minority compared with children from majorities; this finding suggests that even in middle class communities unmeasured socioeconomic factors (e.g., racial discrimination, differential access to medical care, differential access to housing, differential patterns of medical care use), and perhaps biologic factors, may contribute to these disparities. (Chen, Fisher, Bacharier, Strunk, 2003) The disparity in asthma morbidity is greater than the disparity in asthma prevalence, which suggests that once asthma is established, many factors converge to make asthma worse for children and adults who are from racial/ethni c minority. Factors Contributing To A Higher Prevalence Of Asthma In Minorities Environmental Factors After taking into account exposures including cigarette smoke, body-mass index, air-conditioning use, city of residence, parental respiratory illness, parental education, only-child status, and single-parent household. Younger maternal age, residence in the central city, family income, low birth weight, and measures of overweight or obesity partially, but not fully, explain the increased prevalence of asthma among racial/ethnic minority compared with majority children. (Chen, Fisher, Bacharier, Strunk, 2003) Children from the racial/ethnic minority do not seem to have higher rates of asthma, but living in an urban setting, regardless of race or income, increased the risk of asthma. Housing Conditions and Indoor Environmental Exposures Including Allergens   The degree of housing disrepair has been associated with increased cockroach allergen levels, which has been demonstrated to increase childhood asthma morbidity in sensitized children. (Homa, Mannino, Lara, 2000) Certain allergens, such as cockroach, mouse, or rat, may be more potent sources of allergic or non-allergic airway inflammation, or environmental cofactors such as community stress may increase vulnerability to the effects of these exposures in sensitized individuals and since mostly people having such living conditions are likely to belong to urban areas and also minorities (as explained earlier). Maternal Cigarette Smoking The respiratory health effects of smoking have been well documented. Maternal cigarette smoking is associated with high risk of asthma prevalence in early childhood, and with high risk of asthma morbidity, wheeze, and respiratory infection in children. Cigarette smoking varies by ethnicity and by national origin, and cigarette companies have targeted minorities in an attempt to increase smoking where rates have traditionally been low. Disparities in Asthma and Somatic Growth (Low Birth Weight, Pre-maturity, and Obesity) Smoking and other environmental factors influencing both fetal growth and asthma are more prevalent in many (but not all) socio-economically disadvantaged populations in the United States. Pre-maturity and low birth weight adjusted for gestational age can be influenced not only by maternal smoking, but also by placental insufficiency, maternal fetal nutrition, infection, and maternal psychological as well as physical stress. (Waser, 2002)The risk of all these environmental influences on adverse fetal growth may be higher in many socio-economically disadvantaged U.S. groups, increasing the risk of pre-maturity and low birth weight. Underweight and obesity may both be risk factors for wheeze or asthma, and paradoxically, they may even have similar origins in fetal life or early childhood. (Holgate, Price, 2005) The circumstances of urban living and socioeconomic disadvantage, as well as cultural factors, may contribute to obesity. Stress There is a renewed interest in the influence of psychological stress on asthma. Various socio-demographic characteristics (e.g., lower social class, ethnic minority status, gender) may predispose individuals to particular pervasive forms of chronic life stress, which may, in turn, be significantly influenced by the characteristics of the communities in which they live. (Busse, Kiecolt-Glaser, 1994) Minority group status may predispose individuals to pervasive chronic stressors (e.g., discrimination, racism) and societal factors that link minorities. Disparities In Asthma Control And Treatment Asthma is one of many chronic diseases in the United States in which disparities in treatment and access to care have been documented. Even those with apparently equal access to the same health care system may experience disparities in care, and communication with the medical system is far more subtle than expressions of overt racism. (Freidhoff, Togias 1996). Substantial disparities in children’s health and use of health services persist across racial, ethnic, and economic groups in the United States. Disparities in care for Hispanics and African Americans with asthma are well documented. Unfortunately, many patients with asthma suffer because of inadequate care provided by healthcare professionals. (Schaafsma, Raynorr 2003) Poor adherence by the patient to prescribed management, lack of access to care, or a combination of these problems are some the other key factors that result in increased morbidity and mortality. Difficulty in English language proficiency has been reported to have a significant impact on multiple aspects of the health care experience of Hispanic children, including access to care, use of services, and health outcomes, with some studies finding that English language proficiency explains much of the impact of Hispanic origin on barriers to care and on differences in pediatric care. (Sullivan, 2003) For parents with limited English skills, the availability of medical providers and office staff with whom they can clearly and comfortably communicate may be indispensable for ensuring adequate access to health care for their children. Race/ethnicity, language, and family economic status are closely associated with each other and with other factors that may influence health care experiences. Owing to this interrelatedness, it is important for understanding health care disparities and policy recommendations to evaluate these factors simultaneously to see their independent effects. Oth er related factors may include insurance coverage, child health needs, and geographic location. Access to health care is limited for children with no medical insurance coverage. (Weiss, Sullivan, 2001) Black and Hispanic children are more likely to lack health insurance, with Hispanics consistently found to be the most uninsured ethnic or racial group of children. Health insurance can have an important buffering effect on access to care among disadvantaged children, with public insurance helping to bring poor children closer to the levels of non-poor children with private insurance. However, disparities in care and the location of care can remain despite the provision of insurance. Children from different race/ethnic and economic backgrounds differ in the locations where they reside and in their health status, each of which can impact available options for care and interactions with medical providers.   (Britton, 2003) Secondhand cigarette smoke is documented to negate the benefit of inhaled corticosteroids in inner-city children. Unfortunately, many patients with asthma are smokers, including adolescents. It is generally found that people belonging to low socio-economic status are usually from the minorities and thus do not have enough income to afford the expensive medicines for treatment. (Clark, Brown, Joseph, 2002) Physicians normally know their economic status and avoid prescribing expensive medicine which is actually required to treat the patient of asthma effectively. At this point in time, the physicians prescribe those medicines which are easily available and easy to buy even for the poor family. This results in in-effective treatment of poor asthma patients and thus they tend to get hospitalized again and again which no output. Poor environmental control contributes to bad outcomes for inner-city children, while reduced exposure to aeroallergens improves outcomes. Significant racial disparities in asthma treatment have been found among patients in analyses of several state Medicaid programs. While Hispanics and blacks had a significantly higher rate of visits to the emergency department for asthma as compared to whites, the number of filled prescriptions for inhaled corticosteroids and visits to asthma specialists were more common in whites as compared to Hispanics and Blacks. (Britton, 2003) Although the mental health of the parents is not usually considered in analyses of pediatric asthma control, one study found that an independent risk factor for emergency department visits among minority children with asthma was the presence of depression in the mother. Conclusion Income, which is associated with race/ethnicity, explains some but not all of the disparity. Economic disadvantage is an important factor in the racial/ethnic readmission gap; however, the analysis shows that the observable economic factors do not fully explain the gap. The simple ability to afford health care does not fully explain outcomes. Health insurance plays an important role in the proper management of asthma. Medicaid patients have readmission rates that are 50% higher than privately insured patients, which show that improvements must be made in the discharge and follow-up of Medicaid patients. (Britton, 2003) Yet again, the racial/ethnic gap in readmission is not explained by Medicaid coverage. There are racial/ethnic differences in the prescription and the use of preventive medications within the Medicaid population. The effects of individual environmental factors on asthma morbidity and asthma development are likely to be modified by other environmental factors and by genes. (Freidhoff, Togias, 1996) With the exception of cigarette smoking cessation, policy makers should be cautious when recommending global solutions for protection against development of early-life asthma, given the lack of certainty regarding factors influencing asthma development and the likelihood that individual responses to environmental interventions will be significantly modified by genetic and other environmental factors. It is not trite to say that â€Å"more research is needed† to improve our understanding of factors responsible for disparities in asthma prevalence. However, where community-level or individual-level interventions have been demonstrated to decrease asthma morbidity with reasonable certainty, policy makers should develop the means to apply the lessons learned through changes in governmental and social policy as well as through recommendations to individuals. Subsequently, the outcome of changes in policy should be systematically evaluated. In the United States, effective reduction in disparities in asthma morbidity will be dependent only in part on specific measures like establishment of smoking cessation programs, home allergen reduction in sensitized asthmatic children, physician feedback, and/or health education. The long-term success of any of these specific measures is likely to depend, in great part, on more general improvements in living conditions and life opportunities . References Britton J. 2003. Parasites, allergy, and asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 168:266–67. Busse W, Kiecolt-Glaser J, 1994. Stress and asthma: NHLBI Workshop Summary. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 151: 249–52 Carr W, Zeitel L, Weiss K. 2002. Variations in asthma hospitalizations and deaths in New York City. Am. J. Public Health 82:59–6. Chen E, Fisher EB, Bacharier LB, Strunk RC. 2003. Socioeconomic status, stress, and immune markers in adolescents with asthma. Psychosom. Med. 65:984–92. Clark NM, Brown R, Joseph CL. 2002. Issues in identifying asthma and estimating prevalence in an urban school population. J Clin Epidemiol:55: 870-881. Freidhoff LR, Togias A (1996). Inadequate outpatient medical therapy for patients with asthma admitted to two urban hospitals. Am J Med 1996; 100:386–394. Gent JF, Holford TR, Leaderer BP. 1996. Asthma among Puerto Rican Hispanics: a multiethnic comparison study of risk factors. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 154:894–99. Holgate S, Price D, 2005 Asthma out of control? A structured review of recent patient surveys. BMC Pulmon; 6 (Suppl 1): S2. Homa DM, Mannino DM, Lara M.2000. Asthma mortality in U.S. Hispanics of Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Cuban heritage, 1990–1995. Am J Respir Critical Care Med; 161:504–509. Schaafsma ES, Raynorr DK, 2003. Accessing medication information by ethnic minorities: barriers and possible solutions. Pharm World Sci; 25(5): 185-90.   Sullivan S. Asthma in the United States: recent trends and current status. J Manag Care Pharm. 2003; 9(suppl 5):3-7. Waser M. 2002. Environmental exposure to endotoxin and its relation to asthma in school-age children. N. Engl. J. Med. 347:869–77. Weiss K, Sullivan S.2001 The health economics of asthma and rhinitis, I. Assessing the economic impact. Journal of Allergy Clinical Immunology;107:3-8.

Role of Management Functions in the Activities of Apple Inc Essay

Role of Management Functions in the Activities of Apple Inc - Essay Example It is evidently clear from the discussion that management of an organization should do their responsibilities in a systematic manner and for that reason, they are performing some specific functions for the overall benefit of an organization. The systematic functions start from the function of planning. Before implementing any strategy a proper planning is required. Formulation of company’s objectives and goals can be done at this stage. Managers forecast the future situation of business and according to that anticipation and they take decisions for achieving success. For example, management of Apple Inc. is planning to add more security measures for protecting the interest of users. When someone wants to get access to the user’s data then company send a notification to the user by using e-mail. This new i-Cloud security measurement increases the popularity of the electronic products manufactured by Apple Inc. An organization is the 2nd layer of the functional activities of a management team. Organizing the team members and allocating the work as per their capacity and knowledge is very important. From this part, work is actually started by the end of the organization. Apple Inc. organizes its human resources, financial resources and technical resources in a multi-divisional way. Management of this company classifies activities and after that distributing the work into different divisions. Employees of this company never work outside of their expertise and each employee has to work more than 60 hours per week. The function of leading involves communicating, guiding, encouraging and motivating employees in a certain manner. In case of Apple Inc., major decisions and most of the directions are made by the senior management of the company and employees do not have the right for taking major decisions in their work. Leaders of this company involved in talent management activities. They guide the employees through several advanced training and developme ntal programs.

Description of Beverly Hills Area in the USA Essay - 1

Description of Beverly Hills Area in the USA - Essay Example Collonaded buildings, lampposts of a vintage variety and exclusive brands combine to give the visitor a visual treat here. The place is regal in its bearing and this is conveyed through the elegance of the design that one finds in its buildings, its sidewalk and the very flora of the place. The plants are taken care of regularly and are pruned into exquisite shapes, exemplifying the idea of luxury and elegance. Rodeo Drive is known for possessing stores that deal in the most expensive brands of apparel, accessories, home furnishing and so on and so forth, in the world. This is also considered to be one of the most sophisticated shopping centres in the world owing to the high profile clientele that it attracts on an everyday basis. Individual designers have their stores here as well, resulting in a certain exclusivity as far as the clientele is concerned. On either side of the roads are visible the glossiest and most chic of vehicles that add to the charm of this area. This is only ac centuated by the colonnade-like line of palm trees that beautify the streets. Combined, a view of Rodeo Drive is absolutely breathtaking. One comes across several gardens as well in Beverly Hills. Exquisitely crafted fountains with rills of water emerging from spouts into a common stream can be found adorning these gardens. The plants that one finds here are both majestic and exotic. They are pleasing to the senses and evoke a pastoral scene found in great literature. The fountains are on occasion, crafted with marble and have delicate statutes placed atop them. One such garden is the Beverly Canon Gardens. This is a large park and has several fountains like the ones that have been mentioned above. These parks have several walkways too, for visitors (â€Å"Beverly Canon Gardens† n.p.). Here, nature and commerce intermingle and the results are, surprisingly, not detrimental to either. The Beverly Canon Gardens provides a breathtaking view of nature and the possibilities that i t offers, even in a busy life.  

Eucharist Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Eucharist - Essay Example Earlier Christians used it as the synonym of Hebrew term berakkhah, meaning "a blessing". As the Christians opened the gates of vernacular versions, the terms were being translated into other languages in a sense to convey the restricted thoughts of the church rather then exact meanings, the term "Eucharist" also got effected and was restricted to the specific meaning of the ritual of the bread and wine1. Among the different churches, it is known by other names as well, such as, the Lord's Supper, Holy Communion, the Divine Liturgy, the mass, the blood sacrament or simply as sacrament2. As we look at the history of church, in early period there were not much scientific discussions going on , rather the major move in those times was when the shift of the authority of Church to the authority of the Bible. For Roman Catholics both the written and unwritten word of God was taken in authority with equal devotion. Written word was the Bible and unwritten was believed to be the tradition of the Church. For centuries the church remained content with a rough and ready arrangement of the canon but it could not live long. Tradition introduced the doctrines to believers and the scripture was used at the later stage to test and amplify those doctrines. After sharp discussions over it, the Council of Trent decided that the scripture and the traditions (divine and apostolic) are at the same level of authority, to be taken with equal devotion and veneration. But there were certain doctrines that were coming merely from the authority of traditions which became the object of reformi ng attack and Eucharist was one of them3. In the beginning, the Holy Eucharist was held as an ordinary meal in Christian household which they adopted from the Judaic culture. By the 2nd century C.E. the practice of sharing the Eucharist became a traditional sacrament honored as both, a Sacrament and a Sacrifice in the commemoration of Jesus the Christ. Since then, Christians began to gather for Holy Eucharistic ritual. The Catholic Eucharistic prayer and the formal consecration of the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ became the central features of this sacrament in proceeding centuries4. The Middle-Ages is marked as the period of Dark Age in the Christian history. With the coming of Barbarians, the characteristics of earlier time began mingling and merging with the Barbarian. By the 800 C.E. the Pope at Rome got his control over the civil power and from there began the time when many doctrines sprang up. One of those doctrines understood to be developed by the western church was "transubstantiation" i.e. the doctrine that under the appearances of bread and wine, Jesus Christ is contained, offered, and received. The whole Christ is "really, truly, and substantially" present at the consecration of the elements of the Eucharist5. Eucharist and Christian denominations Eucharist is suspected to have been developed as part of the general doctrine of the sacraments. As we look behind in the history, the first full scale discussions over the issue in the Catholic west emerged out after 9th century and then it began to be celebrated. The Roman Catholic Church is the largest single grouping in terms of numbers of adherents. For them Pope is the spiritual leader and have the authority. On the other hand, reformed churches are those whose separate

Introduction On What Procrastination Is English Language Essay

Introduction On What Procrastination Is English Language Essay Procrastination is behaviour of delaying doing a task that can be done earlier but chooses to do it last minute. This behaviour problem exists in almost every aspect in our daily lives, be it in academic, financial or even in health management. Ryan, M. (2007) stated that the habit of procrastination can reach such chronic levels that it can have negative effects on their life. Moreover, take financial management as an example. Spendthrift habit or inability to manage finances properly can pose a problem. Common problems done by procrastinators are delaying payments, such as for house rental, cars and so forth. If the procrastinator does not solve this problem earlier, it might leads to bigger problems, for example, the doer may jump into an easiest solution which is to loan from unauthorized money lender. In terms of health issue, some individuals who are sick tend to overlook their heath condition and take action for it in last minute, which then might be too late for them as their health worsened. This particular case is one of procrastination behaviour problems. Apart from that, as we know academic procrastination problem is prevalence for undergraduate students. Some students who are less motivated tend to procrastinate academic tasks to the very last minute. For example they procrastinate doing class assignment, group project, studying for exam, writing academic paper or thesis. Sometimes, this type of students may finish the tasks just so they do not fail in the subject. Fear of failure, low self-efficacy and low self-competence are some of the reasons of procrastination stated by (Schraw et al., 2007; Senecal et al., 1995) extracted from (Williams, G. J., Stark, K. S., Foster, E. E. 2008). 1.1 Background of Study Though procrastination phenomenon has big impacts on our lives, little research has been done on it. Milgram (1992) has done the first historical analysis on the subject matter and argued that procrastination rises from advance societies who require various commitments and deadlines. Ferrari et al. (1995) in their book stated that this particular behaviour has already existed long ago, but it is only been related to negative connotations in line with the introduction of the industrial revolution. In the beginning, procrastination was never related to any negative interpretation as it is viewed neutrally by the society. However, from the earlier researches done, procrastination can be then interpreted as one of behaviour problem. In addition, the word procrastination comes from the Latin pro, meaning forward, forth, or in favor of, and crastinus, meaning of tomorrow (http://tinyurl.com/procrastinus). There are various dictionary definitions of procrastination. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (Fourth Edition) defines procrastination as to put off doing something, especially out of habitual carelessness or laziness; to postpone or delay needlessly, to postpone doing something, especially as a regular practice (Encarta World Dictionary) and to keep delaying something that must be done, often because it is unpleasant or boring (Cambridge International Dictionary of English). Nowadays, many researchers have been conducted on procrastination. Most of the literature involves university students. A procrastinator is a person who is aware that he or she has a task or an assignment to do. He or she is trying and planning to start working on the task, but continues to delay doing so. A person who has this habit is normally doing less important or not important tasks rather than the more important task. A procrastinator wastes too much time on something which gives him or her pleasure such as playing computer games or reading an update in his or her social networking website. Mostly, procrastinators keep themselves ready to work but end up avoiding the task (Noran, 2000). According to the Solomon and Rothblum (1984) demonstrated that 49% of students procrastinate in academic tasks such as writing term papers, studying for an exam and keeping up with weekly reading assignments. The habit of delaying tasks result in bad consequences, of which Tulik (2008) describes a few consequences. Firstly is fatigue in which a procrastinator keeps postponing his or her tasks and thus become mentally fatigue when the sense of accomplishment is not achieved. Fatigue lowers self-confidence and it can lead to other illnesses such as depression and sleeplessness. Secondly people who procrastinate cannot show their true potential in their studies or work. According to Tulik (2008), procrastination is linked to all kinds of negative effects; thus people who have potential and talent but procrastinate cannot show their talent or potential because they think it is just hopeless and useless to try out anything. The last consequence stated by Tulik, is that the habit of procra stinating makes an easy task very difficult, as a result of postponing the task to a point where in the end the task increases proportion and becomes very difficult to handle. Beswick, Rothblum and Mann (1998) state that the consequences of habitual procrastination are likely to be anxiety, despair and depression as the person fails to complete tasks or perform them unsatisfactorily. Procrastination also puts a procrastinator in a situation of conflict and indecision. Beswick, Rothblum and Mann suggested that procrastination also results in poor work because it was done rushed or partly uncompleted. Due to procrastination, a procrastinator wastes his or her time (by postponing his or her task), thinking that the task can be accomplished later, but lastly ends up with nothing started and missing the deadlines (Hobbs, 2008). Based on all the consequences above, it can be concluded that the habit of delaying or avoiding a task results in lower productivity, wasting time, depression, an xiety, fatigue, lower self-confidence, lower morale, and lower motivation. In Malaysia, the Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia has defined several objectives for its universities and students. Some of the objectives are to produce competent graduates to fulfill national and international manpower needs with 75% of the graduates employed in their relevant fields within six months of their graduation, and to ensure that at least three of the countrys universities are continuously listed as among the best 100 universities in the world and one of the said universities is listed as among the worlds top fifty universities. Achieving these objectives, depend on the students and the university as well, and a possible major obstacle towards this is procrastination among the students. 1.2 Problem Statement At the Faculty of Education UiTM, there are plenty of academic tasks which required constant attention such as studying for exams, academic assignments, class projects, final academic project, and meeting lecturer. Thus, procrastination behaviour might be a major impediment for the students to complete the assigned tasks. Some of the possible reasons underlying this problem are that the students are too occupied with the involvement in outdoor activities, such as sports, camping and school related activity. Based on previous research, researchers have conveyed that the habit of delaying a task results in bad consequences and disadvantages. Besides that, procrastination occurs in every way in our life. Procrastination cuts down productivity, wastes time, results in low quality work, and also interrupts the emotional side of a person (Tulik, 2008). Apart from that, Klassen, Krawchuk and Rajani, 2008, state In an academic setting, poor performance, missing deadlines, low test grade and low CGPA are always related to disadvantages procrastination behaviour among people who does not manage well. There are various reasons which drive a student to procrastinate. The reason perhaps comes from the student himself or herself, influenced by other students or his/her surrounding environment around them (Noran, 2000). People including friends, close relationship, family and others can effected person to procrastinate behaviour. Furthermore, this study will investigate and defined academic task which students frequently procrastinate, areas of procrastinate and possible reasons for the habit of procrastinating among students. This research was conducted to find the possible reason that effect of the procrastination on the academic tasks among Physical and Health education students at UiTM, Campus Section 17, Shah Alam. 1.3 Significance of Study This research was carried out to identify an academic task that has the highest frequency of procrastination among the students, to investigate the frequency of procrastination on academic tasks and to identify the possible reasons of procrastination behaviour among students. The results from this research will benefit the students in which they can understand their procrastination problems and will then find solution for it whether on study skills or behavioural self-control. The benefit to the counsellors is that they can plan better solutions for procrastinators when they know how to distinguish the degree to which the procrastinators is anxious/or depressed. As for the lecturers, this research may help them to know that some procrastinators do find meeting them for educational purposes is not easy, so the result from this research may give the lectures an overview to approach the matter. 1.4 Research Objectives 1.4.1 To identify the frequency of procrastination on academic tasks among undergraduate Physical and Health students. 1.4.2 To identify an academic task that has the highest frequency of procrastination among the students. 1.4.3 To identify the possible reasons for procrastination behaviour. 1.5 Research Questions The purpose of this study will be achieved by investigating the following research questions: 1.5.1 What is the frequency of procrastination on academic tasks among undergraduate Physical and Health students? 1.5.2 What types of academic task are most preferable by students to procrastinate? 1.5.3 What are the reasons for procrastination behaviour? 1.6 Limitation of Study The limitation of this research is it only focuses on Physical and Health education students which are study only done to 60 students at Faculty of Education, UiTM, Campus Section 17, Shah Alam. Thus, the result on procrastination behaviour cannot be generalized to all other populations. However, this research cannot be used to define the pattern of academic procrastination among undergraduate students for the limited number of respondents. Longer time and larger scope of respondents are needed to conduct overall study in Malaysian universities. In addition, it because of time constraints, researcher only used questionnaire. To get more accurate data, more inclusive study method procedure must be used, for example interview, and record observation should be implemented. 1.7 Definition of Term 1.7.1 Procrastination to delay doing something that you ought to do, usually because you do not want to do it, Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2003), to keep delaying something that must be done, often because it is unpleasant or boring (Cambridge International Dictionary of English). In this study, procrastination means any behaviour relating to delaying in completing any tasks. 1.7.2 Students One who is enrolled or attends classes at a school, college or university (http://www.answers.com). In this study, it refers to anyone who is enrolling in physical and health education students at Faculty of Education, UiTM. 1.7.3 Procrastinators A procrastinator is someone who knows that she or he should do and do not do it. According to (Noran, 2000), the procrastinator will work on less important obligation, rather than fulfilling the more important obligation, or (s)he may use his or her time wastefully in some minor activity or pleasure. In most cases, procrastinators keep themselves ready to work, but end up avoiding the activity. In this study, it refers to one who delays in completing any academic task including reading for exam, assignment or thesis. 1.7.4 Academic Procrastination An irrational tendency to delay in the beginning and/or completion of an academic task (Senecal, Julien, Guay, 2003) (p. 135). Students may have the intention to perform an academic activity within the desired or expected time frame, yet failing to motivate themselves to do so (Ferrari, 1998; Lay, 1986, 1995). In this study, it refers to delaying any academic task or failing to complete assigned task within given time.

IVF - In Vitro Fertilization :: essays research papers

10, 000 Australian couples are treated with IVF each year. The expensive and rather risky program (costing around $4000 excluding overheads) allows infertile couples to achieve pregnancy when conventional therapy has failed or is unacceptable. The procedure involves placing eggs that have been fertilised in a cultured dish directly into the uterus. A successful procedure will go as follows: - Couples are counselled about their situation and informed on the procedure, their obligations and rights. - Medical history, physical examination and other related tests are taken to determine candidacy. - The woman receives hormone injections (Human Menopausal Gonadotropin and recombinant Follicle-Stimulating Hormone) to stimulate development of the ovarian follicles which contain eggs. Frequent blood tests are taken to monitor hormone secretion from the ovary and pituitary gland. - When eggs are ripe, they are retrieved by transvaginal needle aspiration, guided by ultrasound. At the same time, semen samples from the husband (or donor) are obtained. The most active and healthy sperm are selected by forcing them to swim through a culture medium. - The egg and sperm are placed together in a suitable medium for fertilisation to occur in a culture dish. If fertilisation does not occur after 72 hours, the oocytes (incompletely developed eggs) and sperm are disposed of. The resulting embryos are observed for the next few days. - A small plastic tube is inserted through cervix to place embryos into the uterus. The patient is able to go home a few hours later with minimal discomfort. During the first two weeks after embryonic transfer, hormones (such as Progesterone or HCG) may be administered. The procedure above can bring either joy or disappointment. A successful patient from the Atlanta Reproductive Healthcare Center states: “For all of us, hearing that we are pregnant will be the most wonderful news. But remember, as easily as they told you that you are pregnant, it can be just as easy for them to tell you that you have lost your child.'; Of the 10,000 people treated each year in Australia, there is a 92% failure rate. More often than not, something goes wrong and couples are left with a hefty medical bill, no pregnancy and compounded emotional stress. Every stage of IVF contains and element of risk, from the administration of drugs to the actual birth of the child. Woman who undergo IVF are at risk of experiencing serious side effects. Many of these are caused by the